Macedonian Journal of Medical Sciences. 2011 Mar 15;
4(1):5-11.
doi:10.3889/MJMS.1857-5773.2011.0127
Basic Science
Effect of Azadirachta indica A. Juss (Meliaceae)
Seed Oil and Extract Against Culex quinquefasciatus Say (Diptera:
Culicidae) Larval Susceptibility of Indian Subcontinent
Shyamapada Mandal
Department of Microbiology, Bacteriology and Serology Unit, Calcutta School
of Tropical Medicine, C. R. Avenue, Kolkata-700 073, India
Aim. The study investigated the leukocytic response
and spleen morphology of albino rats exposed to graded dose levels of lead
acetate.
Material and Methods. Four groups of 5 rats received
lead acetate treatment per os for 14 days, as follows: group A (0.25 mg/kg
body weight), group B (0.50 mg/kg body weight), group C (1.00 mg/kg body
weight) and group D (no lead acetate treatment-control). Thereafter, total
leukocyte count (TLC), differential leukocyte count (DLC) and
histomorphology of the spleen were assessed. Total leukocyte count,
differential leukocyte count and histomorphology of rats that received the
lead acetate treatment were compared to control rats.
Results. Results have shown that the administration
of lead acetate to rats led to a significant (p < 0.05) increase in TLC with
an increase in the number of lymphocytes (p < 0.05). The number of absolute monocytes and neutrophils in the lead acetate exposed rats were
significantly (p < 0.05) low. The microscopic changes from the spleen
sections of the lead acetate treated rats suggest immune alteration and
splenic damage.
Conclusion. Therefore the study confirms the risk of experiencing
immunosuppression for humans and other species that may be exposed to lead.
..................
Citation: Mandal S. Effect of Azadirachta indica A. Juss (Meliaceae)
Seed Oil and Extract Against Culex quinquefasciatus Say (Diptera: Culicidae)
Larval Susceptibility of Indian Subcontinent. Maced J Med Sci. 2011 Mar 15;
4(1):5-11. doi.10.3889/MJMS.1957-5773.2011.0127.
Key words: Azadirachta indica; Culex quinquefasciatus larva;
Probit analysis; LC50; LT50.
Correspondence: Dr. Shyamapada Mandal. Department of Zoology, Gurudas
College, Narkeldanga, Kolkata-700 054, India. E-mail:
samtropmed@gmail.com
Received: 04-Apr-2010; Revised: 01-Aug-2010; Accepted: 03-Sep-2010; Online
first: 16-Jan-2011
Copyright: © 2011 Mandal S. This is an open-access article
distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License,
which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any
medium, provided the original author and source are credited.
Competing Interests: The author have declared that no competing
interests exist.
The mosquitoes constitute a world wide public health problem as vectors of
serious human diseases. The mosquito Culex quinquefasciatus Say
(Family: Culicidae) is the potential vector of bancroftian filariasis
throughout the world including India. The high C. quinquefasciatus
population density in the cosmotropical area has triggered several
interventions by the public health authorities using wide synthetic
insecticide as the main means of combat and control. The conventional
organophosphate, carbamate insecticides and pyrethroides that are generally
used for mosquito control are known to cause the problem of environmental
pollution, residual effects and resistance by their indiscriminate use
[1,
2,
3]. The control of C. quinquefasciatus borne diseases are thus
becoming increasingly difficult, and the mosquitoes contribute significantly
to poverty and social debility in developing countries, like India. This
dictates the need to develop environmentally safe, cost effective and
preferably locally available agents for mosquito control.
One alternative approach is the use of natural products from plant origin,
and modern research thus focuses on botanicals having larvicidal,
oviposition inhibiting, repellent as well as insect growth regulatory
effects [4,
5,
6]. These agents possessing multiple active ingredients with
various modes of action reduce the chance of resistance development among
mosquito populations, and in addition the botanical insecticides are
generally pest specific, biodegradable and relatively harmless to non-target
organisms [7].
The mosquito control at the larval stage of development with phytochemicals
that occur in the oils, leaves and roots of plants is one of the techniques
which affords a cheap, easy to use, and environment friendly method of
filaria control. Studies have shown the potential of plants for use in C.
quinquefasciatus larvae control: Agave americana Linn. (Family:
Agavaceae) and Kaempferia galanga Linn. (Family: Zingiberaceae) [8,
9], Centella asiatica Linn. (Family: Apiaceae) [10], Vitex negundo
Linn. (Family: Lamiaceae), Nerium oleander Linn. (Family:
Apocynaceae) and seeds of Syzygium jambolanum Linn. (Family:
Myrtaceae) [11], Nerium indicum Mill. (Family: Apocynaceae)
and Euphorbia royleana Boiss. (Family: Euphorbiaceae) [12] as well as
Azadirachta indica A. Juss (Family: Meliaceae) [13].
Among the most commonly plants studied in controlling mosquitoes, A.
indica that contains azadiracthtin as the predominant insecticide in
seeds, leaves and other parts [7], was found very important, and an
excellent review of the activity of A. indica with proven mosquito
control potential has been made [14]. But no scientific documentation has
been made on larvicidal potential of A. indica seed oil and extract
from Kolkata, India against mosquitoes including C. quinquefasciatus.
Herein, A. indica seed extract and oil were evaluated as a potential
means of control for C. quinquefasciatus larvae.
Neem seed extract and oil
The method of preparation of ethanolic extract of neem (A. indica)
seeds has been described in our earlier publication [15], and 50 % ethanol
was used to obtain a stock solution of 5 mg/ml. The A. indica seed
oil was obtained from the village residents, who use to extract oil from the
seeds by indigenous method, of the district Purulia, West Bengal (India).
Sampling container and station
Plastic containers and burnt clay pots, which were able to hold up to 3
litre of water, were bought from the market, and placed in areas with
vegetation like flower hedges, mango trees (Magnifera indica Linn.;
Anacardiaceae), grasses that provide shade, for adult mosquitoes resting
positions and breeding activities, in front and sides of house at Naihati
(suburb Kolkata), India. The containers were filled with pond water in order
to allow the wild strains of female mosquitoes to lay eggs, and the
containers were then examined for mosquito larvae, in between the months
January and March, 2007.
Collection of mosquito larvae
The fourth instar larvae were collected and transferred into a glass beaker
of 1 litre capacity containing clean water, and the larvae after sorting
were identified as C. quinquefasciatus larvae. The larvae were then
distributed in to seven glass jars, each containing 25 larvae in 25 ml of
pond water.
Larvicidal activity of neem seed extract and oil
Six different concentrations (2, 4, 8, 16, 32 and 64 µg/ ml) of A. indica
seed oil were taken in 6 pre-labeled 250 ml capacity beakers, each
containing 75 ml of water. The contents in the beakers were stirred well to
obtain oil-water emulsion. Twenty five larvae in 25 ml water, as mentioned
above, were introduced in each beaker, and the mortality of larvae for all
concentrations was recorded after 24 hours. Similar experiments were
performed with A. indica seed extract using same concentrations as
have been considered for A. indica seed oil. In addition, larvae were
maintained in two separate beakers, each containing 100 ml of water, and
only one with 1 ml of ethanol for control.
Time-kill activities of the agents (A. indica seed oil and
extract), using single concentration (2 x LC50) for each, were studied with the
criteria mentioned above, and the larval mortality in each beaker was
recorded at 2, 4, 6 and 24 hors; the moribund larvae in all cases were
counted as dead.
The similar studies were followed with nimyle (a commercial neem based
product of Arpita Agro Products Private Limited, South 24 Paganas, India)
for C. quinquefasciatus larvae, in order to assess its larvicidal
activity against the mosquito species considered in the study. The
concentrations used in the study for nimyle were 2, 4, 8, 16, 32 and 64 µl/
ml.
Probit regression and statistical analysis
The median lethal concentration (LC50) values and
median lethal time (LT50) values of A. indica
seed extract and oil were calculated using probit analysis as described by
Finney [16]. The percentages of dead larvae, after 24 hours of treatment
with various concentrations of A. indica seed extract and oil (for
the determination of LC50 values), and at
different time periods using a single concentration (2
x LC50) of A. indica seed extract
and oil (for the determination of LT50 values),
were converted into probit, and the values thus obtained were plotted
against log dose of A. indica seed extract and oil. The
c2 test was
used to compare the larval mortality of A. indica seed extract and
oil against C. quinquefasciatus.
The larvicidal activities of different concentrations of A. indica
seed oil and extract against C. quinquefasciatus are represented in
Table 1 and
Table 2.
Table 1: Toxicity test results of C.
quinquefasciatus larvae (n=25) exposed to A. indica seed oil for
24 hours.
Concentration (µg/ml) |
Log Concentration |
Dead/Total |
Dead % |
Corrected* % |
Probit |
2 |
0.301 |
2/25 |
8 |
8 |
3.59 |
4 |
0.602 |
3/25 |
12 |
12 |
3.82 |
8 |
0.903 |
8/25 |
32 |
32 |
4.53 |
16 |
1.204 |
21/25 |
84 |
84 |
5.99 |
32 |
1.505 |
25/25 |
100 |
99 |
7.33 |
64 |
1.806 |
25/25 |
100 |
99 |
7.33 |
*Corrected formula: for the 0 % dead:
100 (0.25/n); for the 100 % dead: 100{(n-0.25)/n}; n: number of larvae.
The A. indica seed oil started to show
larvicidal activity at concentration 2 µg/ ml, which showed larval mortality
of 8 % (n=2); the A. indica seed extract was found to initiate larvae
killing activity at 8 µg/ ml, and at this concentration the larval mortality
was 12 %.
Table 2: Toxicity test results of
C. quinquefasciatus larvae (n=25) exposed to A. indica
seed extract for 24 hours.
Concentration (µg/ml) |
Log
Concentration |
Dead/Total |
Dead % |
Corrected* % |
Probit |
2 |
0.301 |
0/25 |
0 |
1 |
2.67 |
4 |
0.602 |
0/25 |
0 |
1 |
2.67 |
8 |
0.903 |
3/25 |
12 |
12 |
3.82 |
16 |
1.204 |
11/25 |
44 |
44 |
4.85 |
32 |
1.505 |
21/25 |
84 |
84 |
5.99 |
64 |
1.806 |
25/25 |
100 |
99 |
7.33 |
*Corrected
formula for the dead% of larvae is mentioned in Table 1.
The A. indica seed oil and extract were highly larvicidal
at higher concentrations; 100 % larval mortality was achieved with oil and
extract at concentrations 32 and 64 µg/ ml, respectively. No larval
mortality was found in control experimental set up.
Table 3: Time-kill activity of A.
indica seed oil (2 ×
LC50) against C. quinquefasciatus larvae (n=25).
Time (h) |
Log time |
Dead/Total |
Dead % |
Corrected* % |
Probit |
2 |
0.301 |
3/25 |
12 |
12 |
3.82 |
4 |
0.602 |
5/25 |
20 |
20 |
4.16 |
6 |
0.778 |
9/25 |
36 |
36 |
4.64 |
8 |
0.903 |
13/25 |
52 |
52 |
5.05 |
24 |
1.38 |
21/25 |
84 |
84 |
5.99 |
*Corrected formula
for the dead% of larvae is mentioned in Table 1.
The time-kill activities of A. indica seed oil and extract (2
x LC50 for each) are represented in
Table 3
and
Table 4. The oil and the extract started to show killing activity at 2
hours and 6 hours, respectively with 12 % and 16 % killing of C.
quinquefasciatus larvae.
Table 4: Time-kill activity of
A. indica seed extract (2 ×
LC50) against C. quinquefasciatus larvae (n=25).
Time (h) |
Log time |
Dead/Total |
Dead % |
Corrected* % |
Probit |
2 |
0.301 |
0/25 |
0 |
1 |
2.67 |
4 |
0.602 |
0/25 |
0 |
1 |
2.67 |
6 |
0.778 |
4/25 |
16 |
16 |
4.01 |
8 |
0.903 |
8/25 |
32 |
32 |
4.53 |
24 |
1.38 |
17/25 |
68 |
68 |
5.47 |
*Corrected
formula for the dead% of larvae is mentioned in Table 1.
The killing was increased up to 84 % and 68 %,
respectively due to A. indica seed oil and extract, with the
increment of exposure period up to 24 h.
Figure 1: Probit regression line for the determination of
LC50 of A. indica seed oil (ASO) and extract (ASE) against C.
quinquefasciatus larvae (n=25).
The LC50 values of A. indica seed oil and
extract as determined by log-probit analysis were 8.041 and 15.495 µg/ ml,
respectively (Figure 1), and the LT50 values for
C. quinquefasciatus larvae treated with the agents (A. indica
seed oil and extract) at concentration 2 x LC50
for each, were 8.328 and 15.322 min, respectively (Figure 2).
Figure 2: Probit regression line for the determination of
LT50 of A. indica seed oil (ASO) and extract (ASE) against C.
quinquefasciatus larvae (n=25).
The larvicidal
activity of nimyle against C. quinquefasciatus mosquito vector has
been represented in Figure 3.
Figure 3: The percent killing of C. quinquefasciatus larvae exposed to
various concentrations (2-32 µl/ml) of nimyle (v/v) for 24 h; (n=25).
Percentages within the parentheses indicate the larvae killing rates.
In light of the emergence of mosquito vectors of diseases showing resistance
to conventional chemical pesticides, several authors reported earlier the
potential larvicidal activities of different plant species against
mosquitoes like Anopheles stephensi Liston (Family: Culicidae),
Aedes aegypti Linn. (Family: Culicidae) as well as C.
quinquefasciatus. Jayaprakasha et al. [17] studied larvicidal activity
of the isolated main ingredient, lemonine, from the Citrus reticulate
Blan (Family: Rutaceae) seed. The larvicidal effect of the leaf
extract of a weed plant, Ageratina adenophora Spreng (Family:
Compositae), on mosquito species including C. quinquefasciatus has
been reported by RajMohan & Ramaswamy [18]. Fresh leaf extract of milkweed,
Calotropis procera Aiton (Family: Asclepiadaceae) showed larvicidal
activity against three mosquitoes, A. stephensi, C.
quinquefasciatus and A. aegypti [19]. Sharma et al. [20]
concluded from their studies that Ajuga remota can be applied as an
ideal larvicidal agent against A. stephensi and C.
quinquefasciatus. It has been reported that the leaf extract of C.
asiatica possess a remarkable larvicidal and adult emergence inhibition
activity against C. quinquefasciatus [10]. The larval mortality of
various products of A. indica against different mosquito species
including C. quinquefasciatus has been reported earlier by many
authors from different parts of the world including India [21]. In the
present investigation, the A. indica seed oil and extract showed
excellent larvicidal activity against C. quinquefasciatus, and this
is the first report on biological control of C. quinquefasciatus
mosquito using A. indica from our part of the globe. The neem tree,
A. indica, is one of the most commonly studied plants for the control
of mosquitoes [14]; it contains several biologically active principles, and
azadiracthtin being the predominant insecticide [7] produced 100 % mortality
in A. stephensi at 1 ppm [22]. The larval mortality of culicids with
30 µg/ ml of Margosan-O (an oil based neem seed extract) were reported as
100 % after 15 days exposure in pool water [23]. RajMohan & Ramaswamy [18]
reported larval mortality up to 100 % for fourth instar larvae of C.
quinquefasciatus exposed 24 hours to the leaf extract of Ageratina
adenaphora, and the mortality was up to 70 % for A. aegypti with
the same plant. In the present communication, an increased percent mortality
was recorded against fourth instar C. quinquefasciatus larvae with
the increment of A. indica seed extract and oil concentration; a
respective increase of 12 to 100 % and 8 to 100 % mortalities were observed
with A. indica seed extract and oil, using increasing concentrations
of the extract (8 to 64 %) and the oil (2 to 32 %), respectively. The
percent killing activity of nimyle against larvae of the test mosquito
vector was found to be concentration depended as has been recorded in our
study; the 100 % larvae killing has been achieved in 24 h at concentration
64 µl/ ml (Figure 3).
The larval toxicity to mosquito vectors including C. quinquefasciatus
of different plants has been reported in terms of LC50
values. The LC50 values of methanol, benzene and
acetone extract of Pemphis acidula Forst. (Family: Lythraceae) were
respectively 10.81, 41.07 and 53.22 ppm for C. quinquefasciatus and
22.10, 43.99 and 57.66 ppm for Ae. aegypti [6]. The LC50 values of ethyl acetate extract of Swertia chirata Buch.-Hams.
ex Wall. (Family: Gentianaceae) against first, second, third and fourth
instar larvae of C. quinquefasciatus were 164.91, 220.10, 284.05 and
326.46 ppm, and against Ae. aegypti 192.67, 237.30, 339.06 and 329.29
ppm, respectively [24]. In the present study, the A. indica
seed oil and extract were highly toxic to the fourth instar C.
quinquefasciatus larvae; the low 24 hours LC50
values, 8.041 and 15.495 µg/ ml, respectively fort the oil and the extract
supported this view. The calculated
c2 value between LC50 of A. indica seed
oil (8.041 µg/ml) and that of A. indica seed extract (15.495 µg/ ml)
was 3.5858, and it was less than the table value of c2 (3.841) at
0.05 probablity, and thus there was no significance difference between the
activities of A. indica seed oil and that of A. indica seed
extract. Previous studies have shown that neem extracts possess
significant larvicidal activity against mosquito vectors. Dua et al [5]
recorded mean LC50 values of a neem oil
formulation 1.6, 1.8 and 1.7 ppm against three mosquito vectors An.
stephensi, C. quinquefasciatus and Ae. aegypti. Tandon and
Sirohi [25] demonstrated the potency of neem seed extract as an effective
larvicidal agent against C. quinquefasciatus with LC50
of 0.53 ppm. The LC50 of NeemAzal T/S against
An. stephensi (1.92 ppm) was about 4 and 8 times lesser when compared to
the LC50 against Ae. aegypti and Cx.
quinquefasciatus, respectively, as has been reported by Gunasekaran et
al [21]. Vatandoost and Vaziri [26] reported the LC50
of 0.36 ppm for A. stephensi and 0.69 ppm for C. quinquefasciatus
using neemarin, a commercial preparation of neem extract. The LC50
values of many other plants having larvicidal activities against different
mosquitoes, in addition to C. quinquefasciatus, have also been
reported earlier. The Copaifera reticulata Ducke (Family: Leguminosae)
oil-resin demonstrated larvicide activity for all the C. quinquefasciatus
instars, and the LC50 values for first,
second, third and fourth larval instars were reported as 0.4, 0.9, 39 and 80
ppm, respectively [27]. Cetin et al. [28] reported Teucrium divaricatum
Sieber (Family: Laminaceae) as the most toxic to C. pipiens, followed
by Mentha longifolia Linn. (Family: Lamiaceae), Melissa
officinalis Linn. (Family: Laminaceae), Salvia sclarea Linn.
(Family: Lamiaceae) and Mentha pulegium Linn. (Family: Lamiaceae),
with LC50 values 18.6, 26.8, 39.1, 62.7 and 81.0
ppm, respectively. In the case of C. quinquefasciatus larvae, the
Ajuga remota Benth (Family: Labiatae) extract exhibited maximum efficacy
with LC50 values of 0.043 % after 24 hours and
0.026 % after 48 hours of exposure, as reported by Sharma et al [20]. The LC50
of the leaf extract of A. adenophora for A. aegypti was
reported to be 356.70 ppm and that for C. quinquefasciatus was 227.20
ppm [18]. The C. reticulata oil-resin LC50
for the fourth instar larvae of C. quinquefasciatus was 80 ppm [27].
Thus, the findings of the present study are comparable with the findings
reported by other researchers, but the variation in LC50
values is due to mosquito species, larval instars, and formulation of plant
extracts, climate and method of application.
There is scanty report on LT50 values of plant
extracts or their products against mosquito vectors. Obomanu et al. [13]
reported that the mortality of larvae of mosquitoes including C.
quinquefasciatus exposed to the plant extracts (Lepidagathis
alopecuroides Family: Acanthaceae; and A. indica) increased with
time of exposure as well as concentration of extracts, and they recorded LT50
values of A. indica extract, using increasing concentration starting
from 100 to 500 ppm, as 152.3 - 181.19 min and that of L. alopecuroides
6.98 - 15.44 min for C. quinquefasciatus larvae. We studied, using a
single concentration of A. indica seed oil (2 x LC50)
and extract (2 x LC50), the killing rate of
C. quinquefasciatus larvae, and recorded similar observations as
reported by Obomanu et al. [13]. Based on the probit analysis, in the
present investigation, the LT50 values of the
agents were recorded as 8.328 and 15.322 min, respectively, and no
significance difference was observed between the two (p > 0.05).
Currently environmental friendly and easily biodegradable insecticides have
gained renewed importance. Neem products are relatively safe towards
non-target biota, with only minimal risk of direct adverse effects on
aquatic macro invertebrates due to contamination of water bodies with neem-based
insecticides [29,
30], and in addition, the products are less likely to
induce resistance due to their multiple modes of action on insects [7]. But,
an important factor in relation to the use of neem-based products as
larvicides is high decaying rate of its active ingredients, such as
azadiracthtin, on exposure to sunlight, and changes in pH [31], and hence
the advantage of minimal residual activity and possible side effects are
gained, but short term and repeated application may be necessary in field
trials. Nevertheless, the use of neem products will be cost effective as it
works at a very low dose and with high rate as suggested by the present
findings, and it is indigenously available. Moreover, the variety of
components and different mechanisms of action, mosquito resistance to neem
compounds seems likely to be low [4,
5,
6]. Thus, it is concluded that A.
indica seed oil and extract can be used effectively as cheap alternative
to conventional larvicidal agents against the bancroftian filariasis
disease vector C. quinquefasciatus.
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